Proteins

What all has to do with proteins?
Lots in the body!!
-Hemoglobin (oxygen comes from lungs and the proteins grab onto the oxygen)
-Enzymes (lactose intolerance-people usually missing an enzyme. The job of the enzyme is to degrade the lactose)
-Bacteria (attack it and get rid of it by latching onto antibodies, making antibody proteins. Slurp up those bacteria and "eat them up", basically)
-Hormones (growth, brain. These hormones help to make you taller, or bigger)
-Structure (muscles are nothing but proteins moving across each other and contract or moving them up. Ligaments are long strips of proteins and fibers. Protein is all over in the body. Hairs are remnants of protein)
-Elephant tusks, rhino horns, etc.
-Bones (lots of protein inside the bones)


Protein
* + * = dipeptide     * + * + * = polypeptide
Amino acid

Proteins join with amino acids, and there are around 20 different amino acids!!! Those are:

1. Alanine	6. Glutamine	11. Leucine	16. Threonine
2. Arginine	7. Glutamic acid	12. Lysine	17. Tryptophan
3. Asparagine	8. Glycine	13. Methionine	18. Tyrosine
4. Asparatic acid	9. Histidine	14. Phenylalanine	19. Valine
5. Cysteine	10. Isoleucine	15. Serine	20. Proline

Carbohydrates tend to have mostly the same building block, but proteins can have tons of different building blocks to them! There are many different arrangements of the amino acids that just simply build up different polypeptides. That's why some proteins are growth hormones, or are blobby, stringy, etc.

Proteins aren't in just one straight line of the amino acids, but are basically all over the place. The DNA and RNA will really tell the protein what it needs to do.

(General model of how proteins are made together)

*  +  *  =  * - *  =  * - * - * -*

1. Primary: This is the sequence of peptides.

Helix- spiral
There are places where protein forms into a helix (spirals) and other places where it looks like a sheet. The hydrogen bonds are the reason why those proteins like to curl and make helixes. That is called Secondary Structure.

2. Secondary Structure: This is all about Hydrogen bonds and the chain to polypeptides.

3. Tertiary: All about the R groups connecting and folding the polypeptide.

Each little group of elements in the protein will be attracted to the others like itself.

4. Quaternary: Polypeptides join together.

For the functional protein, it takes four different polypeptides to join together to make a hemoglobin protein.

A Little About Sugar On The Body

Key Words

Monomer-mono, for "one". one monomer.

Polymer- poly, for "many". monomers joined together.

Disaccharide- di, for "two". two saccharides.

polysaccharide-Many saccharides together.

galactose- a type of sugar that's less sweet than glucose

glucose- major source of energy for most cells of the body

C₆H₁₂O_{6
Used as a fuel for the body once the pancreas digests and converts into energy. If the body does not have enough of this, it absorbs sugar from the muscles to maintain energy. But don't have too much of this! The body will be sent into fasting mode and will not use it, but just let it sit there (that's where the stereotype of sweets making you fat came from). But the body still needs it, so eat your sugar in moderation!}

A glucose molecule, C6H12O6	A 3D rotating glucose molecule

lactose

http://www.chemicalformula.org/glucose

Just Some Notes! :)

CARBOHYDRATES + EXAMPLES

Mono saccharides
single sugar molecule glucose, ribose, deoxyribose

disaccharides
contain two monosaccharides joined during dehydration reaction
sucrose

polysaccharides
polymers of monosaccharides
starch, cellulose (in paper), chitin (hard crunchy dead bug leftovers)

Single sugar molecules
Quite soluble and sweet to eat
Ex. Glucose (blood, fructose (fruit) and galactose
     hexoses-six carbon atoms
     isomers of C6 H12 O6
Ribose and deoxyribose (in nucleotides)

DISACCHARIDES
contain two monosaccharides joined by dehydration reaction
soluble and sweet to taste
EX. sucrose-table sugar, maple sugar
-one glucose and one fructose joined by dehydration

POLY saccharides
polymers of monosaccharides
low solubility
not sweet to taste
EX. starch-polymer of glucose
- used for short term energy storage.
plant starch
often branched chain Amylose, corn starch
Animal starch
unbranched
glycogen in liver and muscles
Cellulose
-long, coiled polymer of glucose
-glucoses connected differently than in starch
-structural element for plants
-main component of wood and many natural fivers
-indigestible by most animals
Chitin
-polymer of glucose
-each glucose with an amino group
-very resistant to wear and digestion
-arthropod exoskeletons, cell walls of fungi

LIPIDS
Insoluble in water
-long chains of repeating CH2 units
-renders molecule non-polar
TYPES OF LIPIDS
Fats (long term energy storage and thermal insulation in animals) (butter, lard)
Oils (long term energy storage in plants and their seeds) (cooking oils)
Phospholipids (component of plasma membrane) (nonstick pan spray)
Steroids (component of plasma membrane; hormones) (medicines)
Waxes (wear resistance; retain water) (candles, polishes)

TRIGLYCERIDES (Fat)
-long term energy storage
-backbone of one glycerol molecule
-three-carbon alcohol
-each has an OH group
Three fatty acids attached to each glycerol molecule
-long hydrocarbon chain
-saturated-no double bonds between carbons
-unsaturated. less than 1 double bonds between carbons

Phospholipids
Derived from triglycerides
-Glycerol backbone
-two fatty acids attached instead of three
-third fatty acid replaced by phosphate group
-the fatty acids are non-polar and hydrophobic
-the phosphate group is poly and hydrophilic
Molecules self arrange when placed in water
-polar phosphate "heads" next to water
-non-polar fatty acid "tails"


STEROIDS AND WAXES
Steroids
-cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen
-skeletons of four fused carbon rings
Waxes
-long chain fatty acid bonded to a long chain alcohol
-high melting point
-waterproof
-resistant to degradation

fat, fat, FAT!!! (or Triglycerides)

This blog is just a little extra. You might be seeing some big words here. Don't worry, there's a basic idea of what they are next to each of them! Enjoy!

     Fatty acids are made up of Carbon and Hydrogen atoms with an acid group (COOH) at one end. There are over 20 types of fatty acids. These vary by:
     1. Length of chain
     2. If the Carbons have singly or double bonds between them (c-c or c=c)
     3. Total number of double bonds

There are three main types of fatty acids:
     1. Saturated fatty acids-when each Carbon in the fatty chain is bonded with two atoms of Hydrogen, the chain is saturated in Hydrogen. It can't hold any more.

 

 Whole milk has short-chain saturated fatty acids

          Fats made up mostly of saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats.
          You shouldn't have many saturated fats in your diet, as it is not healthy for your heart.
     2. Monounsaturated fatty acids- at one place in the chain, two Carbons are each bonded to one. Hydrogen atom, and are joined twice to eachother.
     Double-Carbon bond means carbons aren't saturated with Hydrogen atoms at that point in the chain. The molecule is called a monounsaturated fatty acid because a double bond occurs at one point in the chain.
     Double bonds cause a kink in the chain of fatty acid. The kink keeps unsaturated fatty acids from packing together tightly, so unsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature.
     Saturated fats are unhealthy, but unsaturated fats are important to your health.

    Oleic acid is a great example of this and is found in olive oil.

     3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids- contains more than double bond and is even less saturated in hydrogen than a monounsaturated fatty acid
this is considered healthy, too

Linoleic acid has two double bonds, polyunsaturated-found in soybean oil
 



     Your body makes most of the fatty acids it needs except for two, which are both polyunsaturated. You have to take those in through your diet, so they're called essential fatty acids.


Triglycerides

     Triglycerides have 3 fatty acids in them (hence "tri")
     This is the most common found lipid in your body.
     A triglyceride has three chains of fatty acids connected to a glycerol ("backbone")
     That "backbone", or glycerol is a compound that's got Carbon, Hydrogen, and a type of alchohol.
     The more commonly used name for a triglyceride is FAT.
     Most of your intake are in the form of a fat.

 




Oils are lipids at room temperature.







Phospholipids
     These have Phosphate in them (hence "phospho")
     The glycerol backbone has 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group!
     The part where phosphate is attached to the glyscerol is the head, hydrophilic ("hydro", for water. "philic", for loving. So this means "water loving").

Sterols
     These are lipids with no glycerol or fatty acids.
     They're composed mainly of 4 connecting rings of Carbon and Hydrogen.
     The most commonly known Sterol is Cholesterol.
     But don't worry about taking in the specific, or "right" amount of cholesterol, because your body makes all the cholesterol it needs!

Once more...

ADORABLE KITTY!

My Macromolecules in Cells Web Activity

Web Activity: Macromolecules in Cells

Open your web browser and navigate to:

http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/bionet/biol115/t2_basics_of_life/lesson2.htm

Read the introduction to Macromolecules and answer these questions:

1. What is a macromolecule?

Macromolecules usually refer to a large group of molecules.

2. What is a monomer?

A monomer is something (one) that can be combined with other monomers to create polymers.

3. What is a polymer?

A polymer (multiple) is many monomers joined together.

4. List the four main types of macromolecules.

The four main types of macromolecules are proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.


In the learning materials box click the link for the activity “making and breaking polymers.”  Use this activity to help answer the following questions:

5. What are the types of reactions that macromolecules are shown to undergo?

Dehydration synthesis (condensation), and hydrolysis reaction (breaking down covalent bonds).

6. Describe how monomers are joined together.

Monomers might be made of sugars or like substances, allowing them to become linked together by the dehydration process.

7. Describe how polymers are broken down.

An addition of a water molecule breaks

8. What is the specific name for the bond between simple sugar monomers?

Dehydration synthesis (condensation).

9. Which kind of enzyme joins monomers together?

Covalent bond


Back on the previous macromolecules page, scroll down to the section on carbohydrates. In the learning materials box for carbohydrates click the link to the “build a carbohydrate” activity.

10. Describe how you had to arrange the sugar monomers in order to build a polysaccharide.

I had to move a monomer to match up with the certain elements on the other monomers to bond together and create the polysaccharide. A little water drop formed (probably meaning condensation), and the two bonded. Very neat!

11. Which building blocks of macromolecules are not used in building carbohydrates?

Nucleotide, Fatty Acid, and Amino Acid.

Back on the previous carbohydrates page, click on the link on the bottom of the page labeled “More on Carbohydrates.”  Read the article and answer these questions:

12. Why is sugar stored as glycogen in the human body?

Sugar is stored as glycogen in the human body for it to break down and absorb energy from.

13. Why are plant foods essential to animal life?

Those plant foods have sugar in them, which are also pretty good for giving energy.

14. Describe how starch is digested by animals.

Begins in the mouth with salivary amylase (spit), continuing in the small intestine with pancreatic amylase (stomach acid).

15. What is “fiber” and why is it important in your diet?

Carbohydrate polymers. It's important to your diet because it helps in absorption or neutralization of toxicity or other foods. Pretty much, it saves you from frying because of what you ate. AND it's great for the bowels! Keeps from getting bowel/colon cancer.

16. What causes you to pass gas (fart) according to the article?

Undigested protein and putrefaction cause this to happen. Protein-carbohydrate balance is important here. Stinky gas means you're eating bad. But if your farts don't stink (but there's no way they're gonna come out smelling like roses, so don't expect that!), then you can know that you're eating good and should keep it up!

Scroll back up to the top of the carbohydrates article and click on the link in the text to “Low Carbo Madness” and read the linked article. (or click here)

17. What are some disadvantages of a low-carb diet?

Your body must have approximately 45% to 65% of what it eats to be calories from carbohydrates in order to maintain function.



Return to the original carbohydrates lesson page and click on the link on the bottom “Carbohydrates and Cavities” and read the linked page.

18. Describe the role that sugars play in cavity formation in your teeth.

acid-producing bugs, carbohydrates, and teeth. These add up to cavities. Some preople don't have enough acid in their mouth produced in order to break down certain foods, so they sit in their teeth and rot, making cavities form.

pH?

First, what is pH?
pH scale levels are measurements of acidic acid.

The following image is what a pH scale typically looks like (including examples for each level)...

So...what?
They usually range between 0 and 14, with 7 being the average pH.

H+=OH-    (OH is a hydroxide)
pH=7

H=OH=H2O

So just a few little facts about these "ph levels"...

• We tend to have things that are a little bit higher in pH levels. The pH of blood and saliva and most of the body fluids are used to being in a specific sort of pH. They must be kept very much in control.
• Pure water is a neutral pH level. So when products are mixed in with water, the mixture can become acidic or basic. 
• Lots of foods tend to be acidic. Brussel sprouts, tangy foods, coffee, oranges, vinegar, and etc. (as seen in the above image)
• Your body prefers a very specific level of pH.

So Let's Experiment!!!

What do we need?

• vinegar
• 25 mL grad. cylinder
• universal pH paper
• mortar and pestle crushing device
• 4 beakers or cups, 50 mL volume
• several coffee stirrers
• 1/2 teaspoon + tablespoon measure spoons
• baking soda + 3 other antacids with different active ingredients
• clock with second hand
• data records

Let's get started!

     First,  Then we measured the pH level of vinegar, which came out to be pH level 4. Then, 4 little cups were filled with 25 mL of vinegar and lined up to be tested.

     The average dosage of antacids of the two provided brands (Equate and Rolaids) was 2 tablets. 

     Next, my group squished up 2 equate brand antacid tablets into the little bowl. We added the mixture to one of the four cups of 25 mL vinegar. The reaction was very bubbly! The pH level for this came out to be 6.

     Then we mashed 2 Rolaid tablets and threw them into a second cup of the 25 mL vinegar. This, too, came out to be 6 on the pH scale.

     So NOW, we must put in some baking soda to the vinegar mixture! What happens? This reaction is pretty bubbly too, but settles down, unlike the previous two tests. The pH level tested here cam out to be 6, also.

     NOW for Equate's Liquid Antacid!! We poured 5 mL of this into the vinegar. No bubbly reaction came here, but the mixture took a cloudy look. The pH level of this mixture in particular was 3.



     So according to my results, the three antacids had the same reaction. They all brought the pH level up to 6. So really, you can pick from any of these antacids to use!

"Whooptydoo! But what does it all mean, Basil?"
     What does this all mean? Well, think about these acids in your stomach and how they work. You should have a pretty good idea why too much of a certain thing can give you a pretty bad stomach ache now!
     So, from this lesson, we can learn to watch out for the certain mixtures we take in to our bodies. We must be very careful-or else we can have a super bubbly reaction!

Enjoy! :)

The Fun Things Water Can Do!

Have you ever thought about water and just what it can do? We did! So we did a series of tests to put water through. Our main question: What can water do?

Well, water has many different properties. In this post, we are observing three of them...
-Surface Tension
-Cohesion
-Adhesion

Let's get started!


     First, we started out by putting droplets of water on penny faces (just to see how many drops could hold on it!). I personally felt that the face of the penny would hold more. So dear Mr. Abe Lincon (on my 2007 penny), we found, could hold 47 drops of water on his face! After this, curiosity grew and we decided we would test the difference between water and alcohol. We discovered that Abe could only hold 27 drops of alcohol on his happy copper face! So this must mean that water is more flexible than alcohol. It must be thicker than alcohol because it bubbled over the penny (as shown below).

      So, what property of water was being evaluated by this experiment? Well, it was pretty fun, but there was indeed a point to this experiment! This experiment was performed to make evidence of water's denseness more presentable, and easier to see...

     Now, why is there a "bubble" over the penny? Did anyone else notice that and ask questions, too? Well, this is a perfect example of both Surface Tension and Adhesion. Surface Tension is when the water takes a form of tension on the surface (pretty self explanatory), and Adhesion is when water sticks to other surfaces. The reason that the water appeared to be a bubble over Mr. Lincon's face was because it was sticking to the surface of the copper penny. The alcohol just ran over the edge because it isn't as wonderful as water in this way and doesn't have such a great Adhesion. So no bubbles for alcohol!

Here's what the penny looks like with the water on it!

     Why did you get the results that you observed? I could see that the water was more dense than the alcohol because it seemed to "bubble" over the penny and hold on to the edges of the top tighter before it finally ran off the edges.

     Regarding living organisms, how might this property of water be important? It's been said that the body is about 70% water. This means that we've got some pretty good, thick material inside of us! We need this to keep ourselves going and padded (even though we've got organs like skin to keep us protected). It's very important to have lots of water in you! You're made of it!

After this, we got thinking about the many possibilities. We could do more experiments! And that's just what we did!

     Our next experiment was pretty neat, too! A small piece of wax paper (which has proven to be PRETTY stretchy! It's amazing. Check it out sometime.) was cut and one small drop of water was placed on it. Happy drop of water! Next we tok a toothpick to the poor little drop of water and tried to cut it in half. But the funny thing we discovered was that it would not split in half!

     What property of water is being evaluated with this experiment? Many properties were being evaluated here. Flexibility and strength were definitely a part because the water was able to snap back together so easily, and go into any shape that we pushed. The water had a certain inability to split but it so thick. So one would think they could split it. But separating water is a very difficult task, we found!
     Shortened words! This experiment is observing the property of Cohesion, where water sticks to itself. The confused rambling in the previous paragraph? That's what it all sums up to. Cohesion!

     Would it matter if you placed the droplet of water on  notebook paper, as opposed to wax paper? Why? It certainly does matter! Ever notice how you paper absorbs the water and gets all soppy? That's why this is different! When water is on wax paper, it stays in the form of a drop (just sitting on something!). But when it's on paper, it seeps down into it and you can't cut it without splitting the paper. So it definitely does make a difference. Cohesion wouldn't apply here because the surface of paper isn't like wax paper, allowing the water to form into Adhesion, which would make it stick to the paper. NOT good!

AND FINALLY! We decided we'd see if we could make water travel (NO, not carrying a cup of it! WAY cooler than that!). We did so by filling up one beaker with water, leaving an empty water at the end of a string, and running the water down into the beaker. It was really neat! The water really can slide down the string, if one is careful enough not to let it slip away. And finally, it all makes it into the once-empty beaker at the other end! Very fun time!


So a few things to remember:
-Surface Tension
-Cohesion (sticking to itself)
-Adhesion (sticking to other surfaces)



And because you MUST see another GREAT picture of an adorable kitty cat...